EFFECTS OF WATER SCARCITY ON THE LIVELIHOODS OF RURAL WOMEN IN THARAKA NORTH AND MAARA SUB-COUNTIES, THARAKA NITHI COUNTY, KENYA

Abstract

Water is a critical resource for rural development, poverty alleviation, and agricultural productivity. However, its availability in arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) of Kenya remains limited, with scarcity threatening the livelihoods of millions of rural households. In Tharaka Nithi County, water scarcity not only undermines household welfare but also perpetuates poverty by constraining agricultural production, increasing women’s workloads, reducing their economic opportunities, and eroding community resilience. This study investigated the causes of water scarcity, gender-differentiated access to and use of water, and its impacts on women’s livelihoods in Tharaka Nithi County, Kenya. Data were collected between May and August 2023, during the long dry season when water scarcity is most acute. A total of 313 respondents were surveyed, comprising 113 from Tharaka North and 200 from Maara Sub-County. The uneven distribution reflected differences in population density, ecological conditions, and accessibility, with Maara being more densely populated and better connected than the drier and sparsely populated Tharaka North. Household surveys were complemented with focus group discussions, key informant interviews, direct field observations, and GIS mapping of water sources. Quantitative data were analysed using SPSS (Version 26), while qualitative data were subjected to thematic analysis. The findings revealed that Maara Sub-County relied primarily on tap water (85%), while Tharaka North depended on rivers (53.1%), showing significant disparities in water source usage (χ² = 179.57, p < 0.0001). Drought and low rainfall were identified as the leading causes of scarcity, while governance issues and inadequate infrastructure further worsened the situation. Gender analysis showed that a majority of respondents in both regions perceived unequal access to water for women, with this association being statistically significant (Maara: χ² = 6.26, p = 0.0123; Tharaka North: χ² = 7.84, p = 0.0051). Economic impacts were also substantial, as water scarcity reduced agricultural productivity and income opportunities (Tharaka North: χ² = 32.35, p < 0.0001; Maara: χ² = 41.95, p < 0.0001). Women’s coping strategies varied: in Maara, 43.0% engaged in trade, while in Tharaka North, 21.2% relied on livestock rearing. However, poverty constrained the adoption of technologies such as boreholes, storage tanks, and sand dams. The gendered impacts included increased burden in water collection, reduced time for productive and educational activities, compromised health, and diminished resilience to climate shocks. The study concludes that water scarcity in Tharaka Nithi County is not merely an environmental challenge but also a driver of entrenched poverty and gender inequality. Addressing it requires integrated interventions, such as investment in climate-resilient water infrastructure, community-based water management, poverty reduction programs, and dismantling of cultural barriers that limit women’s agency. Strengthening women’s participation in water governance and promoting affordable technologies like sand dams, aquifer recharge, and household water storage systems are essential for equitable and sustainable water access. These findings directly contribute to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5 on gender equality by reducing the disproportionate burden on women, and SDG 6 on clean water and sanitation by promoting universal, reliable, and sustainable access to safe water in ASAL regions.